Pharmacoenvironmentology: Assessing the Impact of Pharmaceutical Residues on the Environment and Public Health
Main Article Content
Abstract
An integral part of environmental pharmacology is the emerging field of Eco pharmacology, which addresses the ecological consequences of drug consumption and improper medication disposal. As the number of pharmaceuticals consumed by people in the global world has increased, drug residues are becoming sources of emerging concern, caused by their ability to linger in the aquatic and land flourishing systems. Knowledge, attitudes, and disposal practices are emphasized in this review to ratify the imperative role of pharmacy students in reducing pharmaceutical pollution. Research has shown that the perceived knowledge of the concept of eco-pharmacology connotes a knowledge gap, where a small section of students has some understanding of the term eco-pharmacology and its environmental applicability. Even though a positive attitude toward safe disposal and environmental protection among pharmacy students is widespread, improper ways of disposal (disposal of medications into domestic waste or flushing them down the toilet) still appear to be a prevalent phenomenon. The absence of national pharmaceutical take-back programs in most regions adds to this unsafe practice, as there is limited curricular focus on it. Additionally, the level of awareness of antimicrobial residues as the root cause of resistance is quite low. Learning programs in pharmacies, introduction of take-back systems, and intervention to improve awareness and surveillance to encourage sustainable practices through policy interventions are vital. Finally, becoming ecologically literate in the way pharmacology is being handled is essential to both protecting ecosystems and reducing the impact on human and animal health.
Article Details
Section
How to Cite
References
1. Shashiashvili, N., The Strategic Role of the Pharmacist in Environmental Risk Management. Georgian Scientists, 2025. 7(2): p. 184-195.
2. Kayode-Afolayan, S.D., E.F. Ahuekwe, and O.C. Nwinyi, Impacts of pharmaceutical effluents on aquatic ecosystems. Scientific African, 2022. 17: p. e01288.
3. Fatta-Kassinos, D., S. Meric, and A. Nikolaou, Pharmaceutical residues in environmental waters and wastewater: current state of knowledge and future research. Analytical and bioanalytical chemistry, 2011. 399(1): p. 251-275.
4. Hejna, M., D. Kapuścińska, and A. Aksmann, Pharmaceuticals in the Aquatic Environment: A Review on Eco-Toxicology and the Remediation Potential of Algae. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2022. 19(13).
5. Waleng, N.J. and P.N. Nomngongo, Occurrence of pharmaceuticals in the environmental waters: African and Asian perspectives. Environmental Chemistry and Ecotoxicology, 2022. 4: p. 50-66.
6. Hilborne, V., Contamination of water with drugs and metabolites. 2016.
7. Gonsioroski, A., V.E. Mourikes, and J.A. Flaws, Endocrine Disruptors in Water and Their Effects on the Reproductive System. Int J Mol Sci, 2020. 21(6).
8. Cook, S., NSAID regulation in vulture range states: A review and analysis of European and South Asian policies regulating the licensing and banning of vulture-toxic drugs. 2023.
9. Pérez-Lucas, G. and S. Navarro, How Pharmaceutical Residues Occur, Behave, and Affect the Soil Environment. J Xenobiot, 2024. 14(4): p. 1343-1377.
10. Massima Mouele, E.S., et al., Removal of Pharmaceutical Residues from Water and Wastewater Using Dielectric Barrier Discharge Methods-A Review. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2021. 18(4).
11. Li, X., et al., Comprehensive review of emerging contaminants: Detection technologies, environmental impact, and management strategies. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 2024. 278: p. 116420.
12. Küster, A. and N. Adler, Pharmaceuticals in the environment: scientific evidence of risks and its regulation. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci, 2014. 369(1656).
13. Souza, H.d.O., et al., Pharmaceutical pollution and sustainable development goals: Going the right way? Sustainable Chemistry and Pharmacy, 2021. 21: p. 100428.
14. Arnold, K.E., et al., Medicating the environment: assessing risks of pharmaceuticals to wildlife and ecosystems. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci, 2014. 369(1656).
15. Rahman, S.Z., et al., Pharmacoenvironmentology--a component of pharmacovigilance. Environ Health, 2007. 6: p. 20.
16. Ahmad, M.F., et al., Pesticides impacts on human health and the environment with their mechanisms of action and possible countermeasures. Heliyon, 2024. 10(7): p. e29128.
17. Thiebault, T., et al., Record of trace organic contaminants in a river sediment core: A fingerprint of regulatory changes? Journal of Environmental Management, 2025. 389: p. 126276.
18. Ortúzar, M., et al., Pharmaceutical Pollution in Aquatic Environments: A Concise Review of Environmental Impacts and Bioremediation Systems. Front Microbiol, 2022. 13: p. 869332.
19. Cuthbert, R., et al., Effectiveness of action in India to reduce exposure of Gyps vultures to the toxic veterinary drug diclofenac. PLoS One, 2011. 6(5): p. e19069.
20. Naidoo, V., et al., Toxicity of non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs to Gyps vultures: a new threat from ketoprofen. Biol Lett, 2010. 6(3): p. 339-41.
21. Gubae, K., et al., Ecopharmacology: Knowledge, Attitude, and Medication Disposal Practice Among Pharmacy Students. Integr Pharm Res Pract, 2023. 12: p. 185-193.
22. Laenge, R., T. Steger-Hartmann, and H. Schweinfurth, The environmental risk assessment of human pharmaceuticals in the overall EU regulatory affairs process. Regul Toxicol Pharmacol, 2006. 45(3): p. 223-8.
23. Raj, N., et al., Postmarket surveillance: a review on key aspects and measures on the effective functioning in the context of the United Kingdom and Canada. Ther Adv Drug Saf, 2019. 10: p. 2042098619865413.
24. Kaczala, F. and S.E. Blum, The Occurrence of Veterinary Pharmaceuticals in the Environment: A Review. Curr Anal Chem, 2016. 12(3): p. 169-182.
25. Anand, U., et al., Occurrence, transformation, bioaccumulation, risk and analysis of pharmaceutical and personal care products from wastewater: a review. Environmental Chemistry Letters, 2022. 20(6): p. 3883-3904.
26. Alwala, J., et al., Endocrine Disrupting Chemicals and Antibiotics in Wastewater. 2025. p. 107-131.
27. Wei, Y., et al., Environmental challenges from the increasing medical waste since SARS outbreak. J Clean Prod, 2021. 291: p. 125246.
28. Isukuru, E.J., et al., Nigeria's water crisis: Abundant water, polluted reality. Cleaner Water, 2024. 2: p. 100026.
29. Osuoha, J.O., B.O. Anyanwu, and C. Ejileugha, Pharmaceuticals and personal care products as emerging contaminants: Need for combined treatment strategy. Journal of Hazardous Materials Advances, 2023. 9: p. 100206.
30. Larsson, D.G., Pollution from drug manufacturing: review and perspectives. Philos Trans R Soc Lond B Biol Sci, 2014. 369(1656).
31. Rathinavelu, S., et al., Mapping the scarcity of data on antibiotics in natural and engineered water environments across India. Front Antibiot, 2024. 3: p. 1337261.
32. Dehghani, M.H., et al., Medical waste generation and management in medical clinics in South of Iran. MethodsX, 2019. 6: p. 727-733.
33. da Silva, E.S., et al., An integrated analysis of the use and potential risks of pharmaceutical drugs in hospital wastewater: Consumption and occurrence by suspect screening analysis, and antibiotic resistance. Science of The Total Environment, 2025. 973: p. 179132.
34. Rogowska, J. and A. Zimmermann, Household Pharmaceutical Waste Disposal as a Global Problem-A Review. Int J Environ Res Public Health, 2022. 19(23).
35. Voigt, A., et al., The investigation of antibiotic residues, antibiotic resistance genes and antibiotic-resistant organisms in a drinking water reservoir system in Germany. International Journal of Hygiene and Environmental Health, 2020. 224.
36. Mosharaf, M.K., et al., Wastewater reuse and pharmaceutical pollution in agriculture: Uptake, transport, accumulation and metabolism of pharmaceutical pollutants within plants. Chemosphere, 2024. 364: p. 143055.
37. Khalifa, H.O., et al., Veterinary Drug Residues in the Food Chain as an Emerging Public Health Threat: Sources, Analytical Methods, Health Impacts, and Preventive Measures. Foods, 2024. 13(11).
38. Enshaie, E., et al., Livestock Antibiotics Use and Antimicrobial Resistance. Antibiotics (Basel), 2025. 14(6).
39. Manyi-Loh, C., et al., Antibiotic Use in Agriculture and Its Consequential Resistance in Environmental Sources: Potential Public Health Implications. Molecules, 2018. 23(4).
40. Gworek, B., et al., Pharmaceuticals in the Soil and Plant Environment: a Review. Water, Air, & Soil Pollution, 2021. 232(4): p. 145.
41. Fernandes, J.P., et al., Pharmaceutical Compounds in Aquatic Environments-Occurrence, Fate and Bioremediation Prospective. Toxics, 2021. 9(10).
42. Murugaiyan, J., et al. Progress in Alternative Strategies to Combat Antimicrobial Resistance: Focus on Antibiotics. Antibiotics, 2022. 11, DOI: 10.3390/antibiotics11020200.
43. Pinto, P.I., M.D. Estêvão, and D.M. Power, Effects of estrogens and estrogenic disrupting compounds on fish mineralized tissues. Mar Drugs, 2014. 12(8): p. 4474-94.
44. Cunha, S.C., et al., Survey on endocrine-disrupting chemicals in seafood: Occurrence and distribution. Environmental Research, 2022. 210: p. 112886.
45. Lin, J.-y., et al., Non-steroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs) in the environment: Recent updates on the occurrence, fate, hazards and removal technologies. Science of The Total Environment, 2023. 904: p. 166897.
46. Saini, M., et al., Detecting diclofenac in livestock carcasses in India with an ELISA: A tool to prevent widespread vulture poisoning. Environmental pollution (Barking, Essex : 1987), 2012. 160: p. 11-6.
47. Novak, M., et al., Cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of anticancer drug residues and their mixtures in experimental model with zebrafish liver cells. Science of The Total Environment, 2017. 601-602: p. 293-300.
48. Zhu, X., et al., The occurrence of typical psychotropic drugs in the aquatic environments and their potential toxicity to aquatic organisms - A review. Science of The Total Environment, 2023. 900: p. 165732.
49. Clara, M., B. Strenn, and N. Kreuzinger, Carbamazepine as a possible anthropogenic marker in the aquatic environment: investigations on the behaviour of Carbamazepine in wastewater treatment and during groundwater infiltration. Water Res, 2004. 38(4): p. 947-54.
50. Samal, K., S. Mahapatra, and M. Hibzur Ali, Pharmaceutical wastewater as Emerging Contaminants (EC): Treatment technologies, impact on environment and human health. Energy Nexus, 2022. 6: p. 100076.
51. Shearer, L., S. Pap, and S.W. Gibb, Removal of pharmaceuticals from wastewater: A review of adsorptive approaches, modelling and mechanisms for metformin and macrolides. Journal of Environmental Chemical Engineering, 2022. 10(4): p. 108106.
52. Majumder, A., et al., A review on hospital wastewater treatment: A special emphasis on occurrence and removal of pharmaceutically active compounds, resistant microorganisms, and SARS-CoV-2. J Environ Chem Eng, 2021. 9(2): p. 104812.
53. Chakraborty, A., et al., Pharmaceuticals and Personal Care Products as Emerging Environmental Contaminants: Prevalence, Toxicity, and Remedial Approaches. ACS Chemical Health & Safety, 2023. 30(6): p. 362-388.
54. Gidey, M.T., et al., Knowledge, Attitude, and Practice of Unused and Expired Medication Disposal among Patients Visiting Ayder Comprehensive Specialized Hospital. Biomed Res Int, 2020. 2020: p. 9538127.
55. Saeed, H., et al., Impact of veterinary pharmaceuticals on environment and their mitigation through microbial bioremediation. Front Microbiol, 2024. 15: p. 1396116.
56. Buta, M., et al., Sewage sludge in agriculture – the effects of selected chemical pollutants and emerging genetic resistance determinants on the quality of soil and crops – a review. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 2021. 214: p. 112070.
57. Sardar, M.F., et al., Current scenario of emerging pollutants in farmlands and water reservoirs: Prospects and challenges. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety, 2025. 291: p. 117829.
58. Patel, M., et al., Pharmaceuticals of Emerging Concern in Aquatic Systems: Chemistry, Occurrence, Effects, and Removal Methods. Chemical Reviews, 2019. 119(6): p. 3510-3673.
59. Lan, J., et al. Harmful Algal Blooms in Eutrophic Marine Environments: Causes, Monitoring, and Treatment. Water, 2024. 16, DOI: 10.3390/w16172525.
60. Arumugam, A., et al., Pharmaceuticals as emerging pollutants: Implications for water resource management in Malaysia. Emerging Contaminants, 2025. 11(2): p. 100470.
61. Caldwell, D.J., et al., Derivation of an Aquatic Predicted No-Effect Concentration for the Synthetic Hormone, 17α-Ethinyl Estradiol. Environmental Science & Technology, 2008. 42(19): p. 7046-7054.
62. Grzesiuk, M., et al., Impact of Fluoxetine on Herbivorous Zooplankton and Planktivorous Fish. Environ Toxicol Chem, 2023. 42(2): p. 385-392.
63. Oaks, J.L., et al., Diclofenac residues as the cause of vulture population decline in Pakistan. Nature, 2004. 427(6975): p. 630-3.
64. Papaioannou, C., et al. Insights in Pharmaceutical Pollution: The Prospective Role of eDNA Metabarcoding. Toxics, 2023. 11, DOI: 10.3390/toxics11110903.
65. Cycoń, M., A. Mrozik, and Z. Piotrowska-Seget, Antibiotics in the Soil Environment-Degradation and Their Impact on Microbial Activity and Diversity. Front Microbiol, 2019. 10: p. 338.
66. Xu, Y., et al., Antibiotic resistance occurrence and ecological impact in landfill leachate: A review on compound effect of antibiotics and non-antibiotics. Emerging Contaminants, 2025. 11(3): p. 100508.
67. Barathe, P., et al., Antibiotic pollution and associated antimicrobial resistance in the environment. Journal of Hazardous Materials Letters, 2024. 5: p. 100105.
68. Larsson, D.G.J. and C.F. Flach, Antibiotic resistance in the environment. Nat Rev Microbiol, 2022. 20(5): p. 257-269.
69. Grabicova, K., et al., Bioaccumulation of psychoactive pharmaceuticals in fish in an effluent dominated stream. Water Research, 2017. 124.
70. Cuthbert, R., et al., NSAIDs and scavenging birds: potential impacts beyond Asia's critically endangered vultures. Biol Lett, 2007. 3(1): p. 90-3.
71. S, D.L., V.G. B, and V. Murali, From prescription to pollution: The ecological consequences of NSAIDs in aquatic ecosystems. Toxicol Rep, 2024. 13: p. 101775.
72. Collier, R., Swallowing the pharmaceutical waters. Cmaj, 2012. 184(2): p. 163-4.
73. Borgert, C.J., et al., Influence of soil half-life on risk assessment of carcinogens. Regulatory Toxicology and Pharmacology, 1995. 22(2): p. 143-151.
74. Karakurt, S., et al., Dynamics of wastewater effluent contributions in streams and impacts on drinking water supply via riverbank filtration in Germany—A national reconnaissance. Environmental science & technology, 2019. 53(11): p. 6154-6161.
75. Lillenberg, M., Residues of some pharmaceuticals in sewage sludge in Estonia, their stability in the environment and accumulation into food plants via fertilizing. 2011, Eesti Maaülikool.
76. Bitsch, A., et al., Exposure to Substances by Use of Consumer Products, in The Practice of Consumer Exposure Assessment. 2020, Springer. p. 361-479.
77. Meradji, S., et al., The Role of Water as a Reservoir for Antibiotic-Resistant Bacteria. Antibiotics, 2025. 14(8): p. 763.
78. La Rosa, M.C., et al., The impact of wastewater on antimicrobial resistance: a scoping review of transmission pathways and contributing factors. Antibiotics, 2025. 14(2): p. 131.
79. Singh, C.K., et al., Heavy metals as catalysts in the evolution of antimicrobial resistance and the mechanisms underpinning co-selection. Current Microbiology, 2024. 81(6): p. 148.
80. Banjoko, B., Environmental pharmacology–an overview. Pharmacology and therapeutics, 2014.
81. Wada, O.Z. and D.B. Olawade, Recent occurrence of pharmaceuticals in freshwater, emerging treatment technologies, and future considerations: A review. Chemosphere, 2025. 374: p. 144153.
82. Adebisi, Y.A., Balancing the risks and benefits of antibiotic use in a globalized world: the ethics of antimicrobial resistance. Globalization and Health, 2023. 19(1): p. 27.
83. Schug, T.T., et al., Endocrine disrupting chemicals and disease susceptibility. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol, 2011. 127(3-5): p. 204-15.
84. Alavi, S.M.H., et al., A Review on Environmental Contaminants-Related Fertility Threat in Male Fishes: Effects and Possible Mechanisms of Action Learned from Wildlife and Laboratory Studies. Animals (Basel), 2021. 11(10).
85. Marlatt, V., et al., Impacts of endocrine disrupting chemicals on reproduction in wildlife and humans. Environmental Research, 2021. 208: p. 112584.
86. Bolger, P. ENVIRON 2011: 21st Irish Environmental Researchers Colloquium. in ENVIRON 2011: 21st Irish Environmental Researchers Colloquium. University College Cork, Cork, 6-8 April 2011. 2011. University College Cork, Environmental Protection Agency and Environmental ….
87. Sanusi, I.O., et al., Occurrence, environmental impact and fate of pharmaceuticals in groundwater and surface water: a critical review. Environmental Science and Pollution Research, 2023. 30(39): p. 90595-90614.
88. Seow, J., Fire fighting foams with perfluorochemicals-environmental review. 2013: Hemming Information Services London, UK.
89. Neuwald, I., et al., Efficacy of activated carbon filtration and ozonation to remove persistent and mobile substances – A case study in two wastewater treatment plants. Science of The Total Environment, 2023. 886: p. 163921.
90. Gwenzi, W., T.T. Simbanegavi, and P. Rzymski, Household Disposal of Pharmaceuticals in Low-Income Settings: Practices, Health Hazards, and Research Needs. Water, 2023. 15(3): p. 476.
91. Yang, T., et al., Risk Management for Whole-Process Safe Disposal of Medical Waste: Progress and Challenges. Risk Manag Healthc Policy, 2024. 17: p. 1503-1522.
92. Harrison, S., et al., Continuous improvement towards environmental protection for pharmaceuticals: advancing a strategy for Europe. Environ Sci Eur, 2025. 37(1): p. 128.
93. Vidaurre, R., et al., Design of greener drugs: aligning parameters in pharmaceutical R&D and drivers for environmental impact. Drug Discovery Today, 2024. 29(7): p. 104022.
94. Durdov, T., et al., Future Healthcare Workers and Ecopharmacovigilance: Where Do We Stand? Pharmacy (Basel), 2024. 12(5).
95. Tegegne, A.A., et al., Public awareness, knowledge, and attitude regarding proper disposal of unused medicines and associated factors in Gondar city, northwest Ethiopia. Front Public Health, 2024. 12: p. 1372739.
96. Wilhelm, S., et al., Does wastewater treatment plant upgrading with activated carbon result in an improvement of fish health? Aquatic Toxicology, 2017. 192: p. 184-197.
97. Pistocchi, A., et al., European scale assessment of the potential of ozonation and activated carbon treatment to reduce micropollutant emissions with wastewater. Science of The Total Environment, 2022. 848: p. 157124.
98. Völker, J., et al., Systematic Review of Toxicity Removal by Advanced Wastewater Treatment Technologies via Ozonation and Activated Carbon. Environmental Science & Technology, 2019. 53(13): p. 7215-7233.
99. Rahman, T.U., et al., The Advancement in Membrane Bioreactor (MBR) Technology toward Sustainable Industrial Wastewater Management. Membranes (Basel), 2023. 13(2).
100. Insani, W.N., et al., Improper disposal practice of unused and expired pharmaceutical products in Indonesian households. Heliyon, 2020. 6(7): p. e04551.
101. Wang, L.S., et al., Unused medicine take-back programmes: a systematic review. J Pharm Policy Pract, 2024. 17(1): p. 2395535.
102. Al Amosh, H. and S.F. Khatib, Environmental innovation and carbon emissions reduction in European healthcare: the moderating role of environmental monitoring practices. Cleaner and Responsible Consumption, 2025. 16: p. 100255.
103. Baskaran, D. and H.-S. Byun, Environmental Science and Ecotechnology. 2025.
104. Schwarz, S., et al., Environmental fate and effects assessment of human pharmaceuticals: lessons learnt from regulatory data. Environmental Sciences Europe, 2021. 33(1): p. 68.
105. Kar, S., et al., Ecotoxicological assessment of pharmaceuticals and personal care products using predictive toxicology approaches. Green Chemistry, 2020. 22(5): p. 1458-1516.
106. Shashiashvili, N., The Strategic Role of the Pharmacist in Environmental Risk Management. GEORGIAN SCIENTISTS, 2025. 7.
107. Emmanuel, E., et al., Ecotoxicological risk assessment of hospital wastewater: a proposed framework for raw effluents discharging into urban sewer network. J Hazard Mater, 2005. 117(1): p. 1-11.
108. Salam, M.A., et al., Antimicrobial Resistance: A Growing Serious Threat for Global Public Health. Healthcare (Basel), 2023. 11(13).
109. S, D.L., V.G. B, and V. Murali, From prescription to pollution: The ecological consequences of NSAIDs in aquatic ecosystems. Toxicology Reports, 2024. 13: p. 101775.
110. Kinrys, G., et al., Medication disposal practices: Increasing patient and clinician education on safe methods. J Int Med Res, 2018. 46(3): p. 927-939.
111. Bobini, M. and A. Cicchetti, Chasing environmental sustainability in healthcare organizations: insights from the Italian experience. BMC Health Serv Res, 2025. 25(1): p. 978.
112. Jayasekara, U.G., et al., Environmental bioremediation of pharmaceutical residues: microbial processes and technological innovations: a review. Bioprocess Biosyst Eng, 2025. 48(5): p. 705-723.
113. Gonesh, C., et al., Artificial Intelligence in Pharmaceutical Manufacturing: Enhancing Quality Control and Decision Making. 2023.
114. Lin, Z. and W.C. Chou, Machine Learning and Artificial Intelligence in Toxicological Sciences. Toxicol Sci, 2022. 189(1): p. 7-19.
115. Wu, Y., et al., The role of artificial intelligence in drug screening, drug design, and clinical trials. Front Pharmacol, 2024. 15: p. 1459954.
116. Sharma, M., et al., Next-generation nanomaterials-based biosensors: Real-time biosensing devices for detecting emerging environmental pollutants. Materials Today Sustainability, 2025. 29: p. 101068.
117. Bounegru, A.V., et al., Electrochemical sensors and biosensors for the detection of pharmaceutical contaminants in natural waters—a comprehensive review. Chemosensors, 2025. 13(2): p. 65.
118. Lei, J. and H. Ju, Signal amplification using functional nanomaterials for biosensing. Chemical Society Reviews, 2012. 41(6): p. 2122-2134.
119. Olusegun, A.P., Improving laboratory services and workforce in rural health facilities. Journal of Pioneering Medical Sciences, 2012. 2(3): p. 103.
120. Gatou, M.-A., et al., Photocatalytic TiO2-based nanostructures as a promising material for diverse environmental applications: a review. Reactions, 2024. 5(1): p. 135-194.
121. Badr, Y., L. Abdul Kader, and A. Shamayleh, The Use of Big Data in Personalized Healthcare to Reduce Inventory Waste and Optimize Patient Treatment. J Pers Med, 2024. 14(4).
122. Wang, A.-J., et al., Digital Twins for Wastewater Treatment: A Technical Review. Engineering, 2024. 36: p. 21-35.
123. Sayyad, J. and K. Attarde, Synergizing Nanotechnology and Artificial Intelligence for Society 5.0 Advancement Through Intelligent Systems, in NanoMind: Exploring Synergies in Nanotechnology and Machine Learning. 2025, Springer. p. 225-249.
124. Rahman, S. and R. Khan, Pharmaco environmentology – aligning pharmacovigilance with environment. 2015. 47: p. 44-47.
125. Welch, S.A., et al., Predicting Environmental Risks of Pharmaceuticals from Wholesale Data: An Example from Norway. Environ Toxicol Chem, 2023. 42(10): p. 2253-2270.
126. Dawson, L., J. Ahuja, and R. Lee, Steering extended producer responsibility for electric vehicle batteries. Environmental Law Review, 2021. 23: p. 146145292110060.